Many histories of AI start with Homer and his description of how the crippled, blacksmith god Hephaestus fashioned for himself self-propelled tripods on wheels and “golden” assistants. In 1308, Catalan poet and theologian Ramon Llull completed Ars generalis ultima (The Ultimate General Art) Llull devised a system of thought that he wanted to impart to others to assist them in theological debates, among other intellectual pursuits. In 1666, 19-year-old Gottfried Leibniz wrote De Arte Combinatoria (On the Combinatorial Art), an extended version of his doctoral dissertation in philosophy. In Monadology, he wrote: Perception and consciousness cannot possibly be explained mechanically. . . .
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